Why Did Jesus Die? | 12 Views on the Atonement
"And you, who were dead in your trespasses and the uncircumcision of your flesh, God made alive together with him, having forgiven us all our trespasses, by canceling the record of debt that stood against us with its legal demands. This he set aside, nailing it to the cross."
-Colossians 2:13-14 ESV
Why Does It Matter?
The death of Jesus is one of the dominant themes in Scripture. It is an important event in Scripture and in history. Many Scriptures address the atonement, which is at the center of the gospel. But, why did Jesus die? Various theories have been put forth. In this article, we will explore different views on the atonement.
Regarding theological triage, this doctrine is debated. Some treat it like a primary issue while others prefer to consider it a secondary or even tertiary issue. Some have pointed out that the teaching in Scripture is rich and multi-faceted, and therefore no single theory encapsulates it alone. Instead, they may argue for some combination of these theories.
What Is It?
The word "atonement" carries the idea of paying a price to compensate for wrongdoing and repairing a relationship between parties. Therefore, it is a fitting word used by theologians in reference to the work that Jesus did to save us and repair our relationship with God.
Though theologians define the word with slight variations, they typically stress that the concept of the "atonement" is focused upon the work of Christ to pay for our sin and reconcile us with God. Wayne Grudem defines it this way: "The atonement is the work Christ did in his life and death to earn our salvation" (Grudem, Systematic Theology, 705). Similarly, Millard Erickson defines "atonement" as that "aspect of the work of Christ, and particularly his death, which makes possible the restoration of fellowship between individual believers and God" (Erickson, Concise Dictionary of Christian Theology, 16). Thus, the atonement is the work Christ did to earn our salvation and restore our relationship with God.
Atonement is a central concept to the Christian faith. Consider this interesting insight from the New Dictionary of Theology.
"The centrality of the atonement to Christianity has influenced our language, giving us the word 'crucial' which means literally 'pertaining to a cross'. When we say that anything is crucial we are saying that it is as central to that to which we apply it as the cross is to Christianity. What Christ did on the cross is at the heart of the Christian faith" (54).Twelve Common Views on the Atonement
Various theories about the atonement have been put forth throughout church history to describe precisely what takes place. This article will discuss twelve common views on the atonement. (Some of these views listed below lack biblical support. Some even have heretical ideas. I highlighted the most common views among the early church, Orthodox, Catholics, and Protestants / Evangelicals.)
Ransom Theory (to Satan) = a ransom is paid to Satan to purchase freedom from being enslaved. (This view developed fairly early in church history, likely by Origen of Alexandria.)
Recapitulation Theory = Christ has reversed the course of disobedience for all people, which was started by Adam, and he has changed it to obedience. (This view developed fairly early in church history, likely by Irenaeus of Lyons.)
Dramatic / Christus Victor Theory = Christ secured the victory in a cosmic conflict between good and evil, and he earned the release of people from the bondage of Satan. (There are many proponents of this view in the Orthodox Church and early church.)
Mystical Theory = the atonement of Christ was a triumph over his own sinful nature through the power of the Holy Spirit which leads us to have an awakened "god-consciousness"; proponents say that our spiritual condition is not a result of sin but a lack of "god-consciousness." (This view was developed by Friedrich Schleiermacher, and it has some significant, even heretical, problems.)
Moral Influence Theory = the atonement of Christ demonstrates God's love for us in a way that leads to our repentance; this view claims that people are compelled to accept God's grace after seeing his love for them. (This view developed in the medieval period in church history, likely by Peter Abelard.)
Example Theory = the atonement is simply an example of faith and obedience to emulate. (This view was developed in the 16th century by Faustus Socinus, and it is heretical.)
Satisfaction Theory (or Commercial Theory) = the atonement brings honor to God which makes up for the dishonor brought about by human sin. (This view is the most common view among Roman Catholics, likely developed by Anselm.)
Governmental Theory = the atonement shows that God has a high regard for his law and it shows God's attitude about sin; Christ is our substitute but this view is unclear on Christ paying for actual sins of people; instead, Christ's death maintains God's moral governance of the cosmos. (This view developed in the 17th century by Hugo Grotius.)
Penal Substitution Theory = Christ directly offered himself up as a substitutionary sacrifice which satisfied God's demands for justice regarding sin. Christ paid the penalty for sin, imputed righteousness to believers, and reconciled people to God. This view uses legal terminology and thinks of the atonement primarily in a legal sense. (This view is the most common view among the Reformers / Protestants / Evangelicals. However, some aspects of it can be found in the early church especially among Justin Martyr and Tertullian.)
Scapegoat Theory = Jesus dies as the scapegoat for humanity (more as a victim than a sacrifice). Jesus is killed by a violent crowd, because they think he is guilty. Jesus is considered innocent so the crowd is deemed guilty.
Vicarious Repentance Theory - the atonement represents Christ's identification with us; he lived a life of self-sacrifice, suffered for us (identifying with us), and repented on our behalf which leads to God's mercy. (This view was developed in the 19th century by John McLeod Campbell.)
Elect and Effective Theory - since Jesus took a human nature upon himself, his death is intended for all humans; the atonement must be effective in all people. (This view was developed in the 20th century by Karl Barth, and it gets dangerously close to universalism.)
Listen to Kevin DeYoung wisely summarize these theories in his excellent book Daily Doctrine: "Over the centuries, theologians have articulated several different theories or models of the atonement. Most of the models get something right, though some are much closer to the mark than others . . . [The penal substitution theory] is at the heart of the atonement and . . . [it] holds all the biblical insights of the other theories together" (220).
"[The penal substitution theory] is at the heart of the atonement and . . . [it] holds all the biblical insights of the other theories together." -Kevin DeYoung
Here are a few key Scriptures to study concerning the atonement:
[1Co 15:3-4 ESV] 3 For I delivered to you as of first importance what I also received: that Christ died for our sins in accordance with the Scriptures, 4 that he was buried, that he was raised on the third day in accordance with the Scriptures,
[Rom 1:18 ESV] 18 For the wrath of God is revealed from heaven against all ungodliness and unrighteousness of men, who by their unrighteousness suppress the truth.
[1Th 1:10 ESV] 10 and to wait for his Son from heaven, whom he raised from the dead, Jesus who delivers us from the wrath to come.
[Rom 3:24-25 ESV] 24 and are justified by his grace as a gift, through the redemption that is in Christ Jesus, 25 whom God put forward as a propitiation by his blood, to be received by faith. This was to show God's righteousness, because in his divine forbearance he had passed over former sins.
[Rom 5:11 ESV] 11 More than that, we also rejoice in God through our Lord Jesus Christ, through whom we have now received reconciliation.
[Rom 8:1 ESV] 1 There is therefore now no condemnation for those who are in Christ Jesus.
[Gal 4:4-5 ESV] 4 But when the fullness of time had come, God sent forth his Son, born of woman, born under the law, 5 to redeem those who were under the law, so that we might receive adoption as sons.
[Gal 5:1 ESV] 1 For freedom Christ has set us free; stand firm therefore, and do not submit again to a yoke of slavery.
[Jhn 8:34-36 ESV] 34 Jesus answered them, "Truly, truly, I say to you, everyone who practices sin is a slave to sin. 35 The slave does not remain in the house forever; the son remains forever. 36 So if the Son sets you free, you will be free indeed.
[Col 1:13-14 ESV] 13 He has delivered us from the domain of darkness and transferred us to the kingdom of his beloved Son, 14 in whom we have redemption, the forgiveness of sins.
[Col 2:13-14 ESV] 13 And you, who were dead in your trespasses and the uncircumcision of your flesh, God made alive together with him, having forgiven us all our trespasses, 14 by canceling the record of debt that stood against us with its legal demands. This he set aside, nailing it to the cross.
Tracing the Atonement Through History
The following section will explain the historical development of the atonement, and it draws from New Dictionary of Theology pages 55 and 56.
Early church = the church fathers emphasized that Christ saves but few asked how; some theologians in the early church reasoned that when sinners die they go to hell because they belong to Satan; so Christ is a ransom for sinners; however, Satan realized that he could not hold Christ in hell when he rose again on the 3rd day.
Middle Ages = Anselm advanced a theory of satisfaction where kings don't overlook evil that has taken place in their kingdom; likewise, God can't overlook the evil that is done in his kingdom; but people can't provide the required satisfaction; this can only happen by someone who is both God and man; Abelard held to a more subjective view of the atonement; the cross shows us how much God loves us and we respond with love; in other words, the essence of the atonement is it's effect on sinners.
Reformers = The Reformers took on some of Anselm's ideas but they substituted the idea of sin as breaking God's law; Christ then took our penalty upon himself.
Modern = some modern Christians look at the atonement through the theme of sacrifice while others look at it through the view of Christ's abandonment by the Father.
The authors of the New Dictionary of Theology explain why they think no single view has won out:
"Christ's atoning work is so complex and our minds are so small. We cannot take it all in. We need the positive contributions of all the theories, for each draws attention to some aspect of what Christ has done for us" (56).Application
Christ's death on the cross paid our penalty. He took our sins upon himself. He substituted himself in our place. He paid the penalty that our sin requires. He disarmed and defeated Satan. Now, we can be forever reconciled to God. Believe in him today, and be eternally grateful for his incredible work of atonement!
Where Can I Learn More?
Bibliography:
-DeYoung, Kevin. Daily Doctrine: A One-Year Guide to Systematic Theology. Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2024.
-Erickson, Millard J. Concise Dictionary of Christian Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 1986.
-Grudem, Wayne. Systematic Theology: An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2020.
-Ferguson, Sinclair B., David F. Wright and J.I. Packer, eds. New Dictionary of Theology: A Concise and Authoritative Resource. Downers Grove, IL: IVP, 1988.
-Morrison, Stephen D. "7 Theories of the Atonement Summarized." Stephen D. Morrison: Author & Theologian. October 14, 2014. Accessed June 19, 2026. https://www.sdmorrison.org/7-theories-of-the-atonement-summarized/.
-Check out Tom Nettles' excellent article in The Gospel Coalition by clicking here.
-Check out this succinct summary on the atonement from GotQuestions by clicking here.
